Ubuntu OS- The Free World

Ubuntu 

- Ubuntu is a Linux-based Operating System
 - It is Most Popular Linux Distribution.
 - It is open sourced

* Cost free

* Non-proprietary

- Strong focus on

* Usability

* Easy to installation

* One user (initially? you can add more users later)

* One password

* One application per task

* One CD for the entire operating system

- Origin

* Ubuntu is an ancient African concept meaning ?humanity toward others?

* It is developed under Debian Project.(Largest Linux software development community)

* Sponsored by Canonical Ltd.

* Owned by South African billionaire Mark  Shuttle worth

Ubuntu is a complete desktop Linux operating system, freely available with both community and professional support.

The Ubuntu community is built on the ideas: that software should be available free of charge, that software tools should be usable by people in their local language and despite any disabilities, and that people should have the freedom to customize and alter their software in whatever way they see fit. The Ubuntu distribution brings the spirit of Ubuntu to the software world.
Ubuntu operating system powers millions of desktop PCs, laptops and servers around the world. Ubuntu works with our existing PC files, printers, cameras, music players and smartphones - and it comes with thousands of free apps.

User Interface

The simplicity of Ubuntu's stylish, intuitive interface is very enjoying.Its have more than 20 desktop environments. Like: Unity, KDE, Gnome-shell, Enlightenment, Cinnamon, QTile etc.

Web Apps

If you use web applications like Facebook, Gmail or Flickr, you?re in for a treat. You can now pin them to the Launcher on the Ubuntu desktop and launch them with a single click. No more starting a browser, clicking on a bookmark and then logging in. Just go straight into the app, as if it was installed on your computer.

Online search

The Dash has always let you search your computer for your files, photos and videos. Now it does more than just search your computer - it can search your online accounts too. So, once you?ve saved the login details in the ?Online Accounts? function, you can expect to see your Flickr photos, Google Drive documents and more in your search results, alongside the files on your computer.

Dash previews

Ubuntu aims to take the effort out of everything. With Ubuntu 12.10, you can preview your search results in the Dash to see more options, without having to open more windows. Preview an album in the Ubuntu One Music Store and you?ll get the option to play tracks straight from the preview. And when you preview an app in the Ubuntu Software Centre, you can install it with just one more click.

Features

Ubuntu gives us a new operating system every six months, great compatibility with other providers, security we can count on and the freedom to share it with anyone we like.

- Ubuntu is free and always will be free.
- No key codes, activation, registration.
- It contain Multi Boot Loader (Grand Unified Boot Loader)

Flexible

- Can be dual booted with current OS or used from a live CD(require RAM - 384MB)
- Can run on older hardware and still perform well
- Extends the life of your current hardware to nearly twice its useful life before needing to upgrade
- It take less

* installation time

* boot up time

* shut downtime

* Space

* Dual boot with Windows , MAC

- Dell now offers desktops with Ubuntu

Open Source

- Run for any purpose
- Study source code
- Modify source code
- Distribute and Publish

Ubuntu One

- It is cloud file client like Amazon S3,Dropbox
- Free data storage up to 5 GB
- Any user can use through internet(No need of Ubuntu OS)
- It has Ubuntu One Music Store like Ovi music in Nokia
- Special mobile apps like Ubuntu One Music, Ubuntu One Files for Android and iPhone.

Compatible

- Compatible with most hardware,
- Natively Compatible with MS programs:

* MS Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Outlook, Publisher, Dreamweaver, Project, Adobe Acrobat

Ubuntu works brilliantly with a range of devices. Simply plug in your MP3 player, camera or printer and you?ll be up and running straight away. No installation CDs. No fuss. And it?s compatible with Windows too! So you can open, edit and share Microsoft Office documents stress-free.

Accessible

Accessibility is central to the Ubuntu philosophy. Fully translated into over 40 languages, Ubuntu also includes essential assistive technologies, which are, of course, completely free
Advantages:

- Free.
- No office software needed (pre installed).
- Quick booting,
- Fast; Ubuntu loads quickly on any computer, but it's super-fast on newer machines. With no unnecessary programs and trial software slowing things down, booting up and opening a browser takes seconds. Unlike other operating systems that leave you staring at the screen, waiting to get online. And Ubuntu won?t grow sluggish over time. It?s fast. And it stays fast
- Good looking- It?s beautiful, stylish and fast.
- Easy to use-Ubuntu does everything you need it to and more. It'll work with music, videos, photos and files that you use on your current PC. And it works just as well with printers, cameras and all common smartphones.
- Minimum hardware requirements,
- Easy dual boot installation with Windows.
- Highly stable. Works well with Android phones. Integrated menus in the top bar save screen real estate if needed.
- Easy to trial and install-You don?t have to be an expert. Ubuntu?s quick and easy to get started.
- Up-to-date. Ubuntu is released in every six months and it brings regular updates for free.

Security

- All Operating Systems are vulnerable
- Security requires a layered approach
- Fire-starter as fire-wall
- UBUNTU is immune to viruses- no antivirus needed- Life's too short to spend it worrying about viruses.
- Anti-phishing
- File encryption
- Password protection
- Built with security in mind
- Automatic security updates
- Built by hackers to be inherently more secure  than any other operating system

* Including spyware, adware, Trojan horses, worms, and any other malware protections

* Antivirus : ClamTk (GNU)(GUI), ClamAv

* Trusted OS

* ATMs, BANK Server, some military aircraft

You can surf in safety with Ubuntu - confident that your files and data will stay protected. A built-in firewall and virus protection are available. And if a potential threat appears, we provide automatic updates which you can install in a single click. You get added security with AppArmor, which protects your important applications so attackers can?t access your system. And thanks to Firefox and gnome-keyring, Ubuntu helps you keep your private information private. So whether it?s accessing your bank account or sharing sensitive data with friends or colleagues, you?ll have peace of mind when you need it the most.

Architecture:

• Dynamic loading of kernel module
• Preemptive
• Symmetric multiprocessor (SMP) support
• Linux does not differentiate between threads and normal processes
• Linux provides an object-oriented device model with device classes,hotpluggable events and user-space device file system(sysfs)

Ubuntu Desktop certified hardware
Dell, HP, Lenovo, Wipro, Asus, Acer, Toshiba, HCL Info systems Limited, Compaq

Ubuntu Server certified hardware
 Dell, HP, Lenovo, Acer, IBM, Cisco UCS, System76, Intel, Citrix Systems, Facebook - OCP, Sun, VMware

Software

- Ubuntu Software Center featuring Thousands of free software and tools.
- Other free software are available via other sites like getdeb.net, appnr.com etc.
- We have to purchase other software if you want.
- You may need to purchase less than 1% of your software

Requirements

- Requires less hard drive space (under 2-4 GB )
- Requires less RAM ( 128-256MB )
- Requires less CPU power (as old as Pentium II)
- Maintains its performance speed no matter how much you use it.

Ubuntu V/S Windows V/S Mac:

- Version Upgrades,

* Windows?averaging 2-3 years

* Mac?every 2 years since 2003

* Ubuntu?every six months 

-  Service packs and updates,

* Windows?months

* Mac?weeks

* Ubuntu?immediately 

you can see the blogs of other team members of the team 3[G]enius here,

Tanvir Islam
Abdullah Al Imran

Chrome OS and System Architecture

At first we want to define what a “Web OS” is. The market uses this term mostly for a “web based desktop environment” which is nothing but a standard OS, which happens to export a desktop view over HTTP so people can launch a browser, and work on a remote OS via the web.

Google's Chrome Operating System is a web OS which is Linux-based, open-source operating system which launched in July 2009, with the aim of building an operating system that provides a fast, simple, and more secured computing experience. Chrome OS is essentially a small sized, fast booting platform whose purpose is to run a web browser from where all the Google apps and other web services that you commonly use, can be run.

Its open source version is called the Chromium OS.  This is the first OS dedicated to internet.

You may get confused or mix up the Chrome OS with the Chromium OS. So let us make sure the difference.

•    Chromium OS is the open source project, used primarily by developers, with code that is available for anyone to checkout, modifies and build. Chrome OS is the Google product that OEMs ship on Chrome books for general consumer use.

•    Chrome OS has some additional firmware features, including verified boot and easy recovery, which require corresponding hardware changes.

•    Chrome OS seamlessly auto-updates so that users have the latest and greatest features and fixes.

•    Chrome OS includes some binary packages (Adobe Flash, PDF plug-in, Netflix Instant, Google Talk, 3G Cellular support) which are not allowed to be included in the Chromium OS project.

Installation:

While Chrome OS runs on specially optimized hardware, it comes preinstalled. There is a simple setup procedure, however. It’s recommended that you sign in using a Google account. If you'd prefer, you can opt for the Guest mode. Guest mode in Chrome OS has the Chrome browser's trackless browsing mode, called Incognito. Incognito prevents guest users from leaving any traces of their session, as well as keeping them from making any changes to your apps and other settings.

Interface:

The user interface of the Chrome OS simply resembles a web browser. You can run an application in one tab and browse the web in another. There's an actual desktop that looks a bit cribbed from Windows 7, with Chrome browser pinned to the far left of the Launcher, and other apps pinned right next to it. The browser also has a set of ‘Application Tabs’ which are pinned in the web-browser where user can access popular Google apps and services- Google Talk, Gmail, Picasa, YouTube, Google+, Google docs which are pre-loaded and just a click away if you wish to use them. User has the option to add more. Besides the Application Tab, you will find the chrome menu. Other applications like contacts and calculator can be accessed from this menu. Activities like chatting and file handling and sharing are accomplished through Panels. For instance, if the user wants to view the contents of a USB device, he plugs it in the machine and he will see the contents in the pop-up panels.

The lower-right corner shows your Google account avatar to indicate who's logged in. Click the avatar to show shutdown options and reveal more information and settings.

Features:

•    100GB Google Drive.

•    Based on Linux: supports multiple workspaces.

•    Auto updating and translation.

•    Supports PDF, PPT, DOC, ZIP, XLS and RAR, and PPTX.

•    Printing with Google Cloud Print. Cloud Print does now come with access to FedEx stores in the United States, which is a nice improvement for remote printing.

•    Cookies, image management, JavaScript, plug-ins, pop-ups, location information, and notifications can be adjusted.

•    A new feature: "verified boot." Chrome OS will check its own integrity when booting, and if it detects any changes, it will allow user to restore a last-known good configuration.

•    Supports external Memory Devices. Ex. SD Card.

•    Explores external devices in Chrome Browser itself.

•    A media player is integrated enabling users to play back MP3s, view JPEGs, and handle other multimedia files while offline. Embedded Video Player is provided as a feature of HTML 5.

•    Chatting feature is readily available.

•    V8 JavaScript engine is used to increase browser speed.

•    Developer mode is included with a switch mode button. It allows developer to install their own builds of Chrome OS

•    File sharing is easier. If user wants to send a file from a USB drive to a friend with whom he is chatting, he can simply drag and drop the file between the two panels (the chat and the USB panel).

Architectural Overview & Performance:

Google Chrome OS is not a conventional operating system that you can download or buy on a disc and install. As a consumer, the way you will get Chrome OS is by buying a Chrome-book that has Chrome OS installed by the OEM. However, one can download the Chromium OS which requires just 1GB disk space, 256 MB RAM and supports most of today's graphics cards and support both Intel, AMD processors.

Cr-48 prototype hardware:

Google announced the Cr-48 laptop, a reference hardware design to test the Chrome OS operating system. The laptop's design broke convention by replacing the caps lock key with a dedicated search key and the default settings for the hot keys. The Cr-48 was intended for testing only, not retail sales. To test it, they used a high-powered Lenovo T400 laptop, running on an Intel Core 2 Duo T9400 at 2.53GHz, with 3GB of RAM.

The Cr-48 notebooks have additional unused hardware components, including a Bluetooth 2.1 controller. The USB port only acts as a keyboard, mouse, Ethernet adapter, or USB storage port and will not work as a printer port as there is no print stack on the operating system.

Commercial hardware:

Chrome OS is initially intended for secondary devices like net books, called the Chrome-books. Currently only two Hardware companies ACER and SAMSUNG are authorized to design this Chrome-book. Chrome OS is hardware dependent currently supports x86-based PCs and devices built around the ARM processor. Chrome-books do not have HDDs but instead they use flash based memory solutions or solid state drives (SSD) for that.

On May 29, 2012, Google and Samsung introduced the Second-Generation Chrome-book and a new compact desktop Chromebox, which was said to be a clone of the Apple Mac Mini.

Hardware-specific developer information:

Release date	Manufacturer	Model	Project code name
December 2010	Google	Cr-48	Mario
June 2011	Samsung	Series 5 Chromebook	Alex
July 2011	Acer	AC700 Chromebook	ZGB
May 2012	Samsung	Series 3 Chromebox	Stumpy
May 2012	Samsung	Series 5 550 Chromebook	Lumpy
October 2012	Samsung	ARM Chromebook	Snow (aka Daisy)
November 2012	Acer	C7 Chromebook	Parrot

Google is currently working with manufacturers to elaborate a new set of netbook hardware which comply with their speed and security needs. Also, Google requests the hardware partners for the netbooks to be made a bit larger to accommodate a standard size keyboard and to have better mouse pads. Later Google Chrome OS will also be available on desktops, serving as an ideal machine for a public Internet terminal, according to Google.

Software Architecture:

Chrome OS’s architecture has three distinct components, all of which have been tuned to make the OS fast:

1.    The firmware: The firmware provides the quick boot time and incorporates system recovery, if and when it's needed. The firmware also contributes to security by verifying each step in the boot process.

2.    The System-level/user-land software: Chrome OS's system-level software includes a Linux kernel that has been patched to increase the speed and performance of the system. User land software has been trimmed to essentials, with management by Upstart, which can launch services in parallel, re-spawn crashed jobs, and defer services in the interest of faster booting.

3.    The Window Manager: Window manager cum browser handles the user interaction and is also used to log on and use the internet services and various Google apps.

Advantages:

Chrome OS does a lot of things right and its almost custom made for regular internet users but you can do all that on your current OS too, so why then should you switch over to Chrome OS?

The answer is here,

Chrome is intended to provide the core features of an OS which is speed, simplicity and security.

•    Speed 

Chrome OS tends to diminish the irrelevant process time such as hardware detection, BIOS, OS Primitives etc. Chrome offers incredibly quick boot time, and is all customized for quick access. Google claims that even the fastest computer takes about 25 seconds to boot. Booting on a Chrome OS device takes hardly 7 seconds to get the user to the log-in screen. It is just like Television, Flip a switch and it is ON.

•    Simplicity 

-    Just a browser with tabs

-    Requires Google ID to log in

-    Customizable as per users requirement

-    For any application User is not supposed to buy and install any app on her PC instead just get subscription to suitable web application and consume it.

•    Security

-    Small list of verified programs : signed and verified before each use

-    File System is Locked down :

-    Read only Root File System in EEPROM

-    Self Automatic updates for entire OS

-    All apps in Chrome OS are web apps which are sandboxed. This means that they can’t interfere with each other and your device. Therefore the chances of getting a virus are minimal.

-    The root system is read only. All user data is encrypted and fully secure. On boot up, the OS checks itself and incase any improper functionality is found; the OS automatically downloads patches and reinstalls them.

-    Data is stored in cloud - As such, computers running Chrome OS will be very dependent on a solid internet connection to function optimally. Since data is stored in the cloud, you’ll be able to access your data remotely in a process Google is calling “chromoting”.

-    Data is always synced with cloud to avoid data loss

-    Digital Signatures are provided for every firmware update

-    If malware found System recovers itself to clean image

Limitations:

•    Only web applications are supported, not any local applications.

•    Does not support Microsoft Office or Popular cross-platform like Skype

•    Non-Google sites can’t be easily integrated as apps

•    Hardware specific - No conventional net book support. Yes, you need to buy new one from Google’s hardware partners (HP/Acer/Lenovo/Asus).

•    No physical data storage

•    Terrible with large number of tabs

•    Virtual Private Network(VPN) software can’t be used for secured data transfer

•    Data security on cloud- User will be reluctant to store his highly confidential data on cloud. For example, if anyone prepares a document on long term planning and strategies, definitely he will prefer to store his documents in encrypted form on its own hard drive than storing it on Clouds.

•    Internet needs to be much faster- For an instance, think user wants to work on few Adobe applications as well as a movie download from internet and even playing a favorite tune. For all these to happen, internet speed needs revolutionary increase.

However, the question of Chrome OS usefulness is still debatable – when in the absence of an internet connection.

Further Development:

•    Open Source project named ‘Chromium’ is stared

•    Open Source Communities are adding code to Chromium

•    Google Developers and Open Source Developers are working on same tree for betterment of OS

•    Google is working with OEM to make Google Chrome OS machines available in market

•    Expected that Chrome OS and Android will converge together.

Google has really brought us a faster, simpler and more secured OS. Well, as it is new so it is not available easily but we can hope that it will give a good competition to some trend setter OS developers. As long as Google continues to support the project, Chrome OS will keep improving. One day, and perhaps sooner rather than later, it might even be ready for all.

we, the team "omega", worked really hard..! :P
you can see the blogs of other team members here,

Mahmodul Hasan Bhuiya
Abdullah Al Imran
Abu Sofian
Nusrat Jahan
  

Functions of Operating System

Operating System

An operating system is an integrated set of programs that controls the resources (the CPU, memory, I/O devices) of a computer system and provides its users with an interface or virtual machine that is more convenient to use than bare machine. An operating system is a group of computer programs that coordinates all the activities among computer hardware devices. It is the first program loaded into the computer by a boot program and remains in memory at all times.

Main Functions of Operating System

The main functions performed by most operating systems of today are as follows:

1. Process Management - The process management module of an operating system takes care of the creation and deletion of process, scheduling of various system resources to the different processes requesting them, and providing mechanisms for synchronization and communication among process.

2. Memory Management - The memory management module of an operating system takes care of the allocation and de allocation of memory space to the various programs in need of these resources.

3. File Management - The file management module of an operating system takes care of file-related activities such as organization, storing, retrieval, naming, sharing, and protection of files. The operating system handles the organization and tracking of files and directories (folders) saved or retrieved from a computer disk. The file management system allows the user to perform such tasks as creating files and directories, renaming files, coping and moving files, and deleting files. The operating system keeps track of where files are located on the hard drive through the type of file system. The type two main types of file system are File Allocation table (FAT) or New Technology File system (NTFS).

4. Security – The security module of an operating system protects the resources and information of a computer system against destruction and unauthorized access.

5. Command Interpretation – The command interpretation module of an operating system takes care of interpreting user commands, and directing the system resources to handle the requests. With this mode of interaction with the system, the user is usually not too concerned with the hardware details of the system.

6. Resource Management – The operating system manages system resources such as the computer's memory and sharing of the central processing unit (CPU) time by various applications or peripheral devices. Programs and input methods are constantly competing for the attention of the CPU and demand memory, storage and input/output bandwidth. The operating system ensures that each application gets the necessary resources it needs in order to maximize the functionality of the overall system.

In addition to the above listed major functions, an operating system also performs few other functions such as keeping an account of which users (or process) use how much and what kinds of computer resources, maintenance of log system usage by all users, and maintenance of internal time clock.

Role of an Operating System 
as a Resource Manager:

The important objective of an operating system is to manage the various resources of the computer system. This involves performing such tasks as keeping track of who is using which resource, granting resource requests, accounting for resource usage, and mediating conflicting requests from different program and users. The efficient and fair sharing of resources among users and program is a key goal of most operating systems. 

Operating system is known as resource manager because it controls all the activities of computer system and acts as an interface between user and hardware. Alternatively resource manager means anything which controls the professional activities of a performer... And this is what the operating system does so it is also known as resource manager.

 • From the computer's point of view, the OS is the program most intimately involved with the hardware. In this context, we can view an OS as a resource allocator. 
• Resource - ``Something valuable'' e.g. CPU time, memory space (RAM), file-storage space, I/O devices (disk), and so on. 
• The OS acts as the manager of these resources. Includes multiplexing (sharing) resources in two different ways. "in time" and "in space". 

1. When a resource is time multiplexed different programs or different users gets their turn to use that resource. e.g.: Printer.  
2. When a resource is space multiplexed instead of taking turns, the resource is shared among them, i.e. each one gets a part of the resource. e.g.: Sharing main memory, hard disk etc. 

• Multiple users/applications can share, why share: 

1. devices are expensive,  
2. there is need to share data as well as communicate  

• Facing numerous and possibly conflicting requests for resources, the OS must decide

1.  how to allocate them to specific programs (processes, jobs) 
2. how to protect applications from one another,  
3. how to provide fair and efficient access to resources,  
4. how to operate and control the various I/O devices.

Computer Organization and Architecture

Computer  
Organization
 
The definition of the term “organizing” is to put together into an orderly, functional, and structured whole. The term Computer Organization refers to a conceptual understanding of the inner workings of computers. It includes emphasis on the system components, logical design, structure of instructions, computer arithmetic, processor control, assembly language programming and methods of performance enhancements. 

It is concerned with the way the hardware components operate and the way they are connected together to form the computer system. The various components are assumed to be in place and the task is to investigate the organizational structure to verify that the computer parts operate. 

Every computer essentially consists of five elements or units namely the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), the memory unit, the control unit, the input unit, and the output unit.

Input : This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer system. The input unit takes data from user to the computer in an organized manner for processing.

Central Processing Unit (CPU) : The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the type of data provided. It is then sent back to the storage unit. We may call CPU as the brain of any computer system. It is just like brain that takes all major decisions, makes all sorts of calculations and directs different parts of the computer functions by activating and controlling the operations. The ALU and the CU of a computer system are jointly known as the central processing unit. 

The task of ALU is performing arithmetic and logical operations like addition, subtraction etc. Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed by control unit. It takes care of step by step processing of all operations inside the computer. 

Memory: The process of saving data and instructions is known as storage. Data has to be fed into the system before the actual processing starts. It is because the processing speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is so fast that the data has to be provided to CPU with the same speed. All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing. Intermediate results of processing are also stored here. 

Output : This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful information. Similarly the output produced by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere inside the computer before being given to you in human readable form. Again the output is also stored inside the computer for further processing. 

Computer  
Architecture

Computer architecture is the conceptual design and fundamental operational structure of a computer system. It is a functional description of requirements and design implementations for the various parts of a computer, focusing largely on the way by which the central processing unit (CPU) performs internally and accesses addresses in memory. 

Computer architecture is a structure of a computer that a machine language programmer must understand to write a correct (timing independent) program for that machine. In another word it is the user visible portion of the instruction set. It includes emphasis on logical design, computer design and the system design. It is concerned with the structure and behavior of computer as seen by user. 

Computer Architecture = Machine Organization (What the machine looks like) + Instruction Set Architecture (How you talk to the machine) 

Computer Architecture mainly specifies the relation between parts of a computer system like I/O devices, memory, processor etc. 

Benefits Of Studying 
Computer Organization 
And Computer Architecture 

The computer lies at the heart of computing. Without it most of the computing disciplines today would be a branch of theoretical mathematics. To be a professional in any field of computing today, one should not regard the computer as just a black box that executes programs by magic. All students of computing should acquire some understanding and appreciation of a computer system’s functional components, their characteristics, their performance and their interactions. There are practical implications as well. Students need to understand computer architecture in order to structure a program so that it runs more efficiently on a real machine. In selecting a system to use, they should to able to understand the tradeoff among various components such as CPU clock speed vs. memory size. 

Reason of studying computer architecture: 

1. Suppose a graduate enter the industry and is asked to select the most cost-effective computer for use throughout a large organization.An understanding of the implications of spending more for various alternatives, such as a larger cache or a higher processor clock rate, is essential to making the decision. 

2. Many processors are not used in PC’s or servers but in embedded systems. a designer may program a processor in C that is embedded in some real time or larger system such as an intelligent automobile electronics controller. Debugging the system may require the use of a logic analyzer that displays the relationship between interrupt requests from engine sensors and machine-level code. 

3. Concepts used in computer architecture find application in other courses. In particular the way in which the computer provides architectural support for programming languages and operating system facilities reinforces concepts from those areas. 

Computer organization and architecture encompasses a broad range of design issues and concepts. A good overall understanding of these concepts will be useful both in other areas of study and in future work after graduation. 

The Factors Involved That Prohibits Us 
From Speeding Up

Computer processing capability depends on several factors such as: 

- CPU clock speed 
 - Cache memory size and speed 
- Front Side Bus (FSB) 
- Computer RAM 
- Hard disk access and rotational speed 
- Power consumption and Cost 

For two CPUs with the same pipeline depth but different clock speeds, the higher clock speed gives it an advantage. One major reason that CPU clock speed has not gone up is simply that transistors themselves have not gotten a lot faster. Intel is currently manufacturing on 32nm HKMG, having moved from 45nm. Two years before that, it was 65nm and before that 90nm. However, the problem is that while transistors are getting smaller, they’re not getting faster. And to understand this, a bit of background on the MOSFET is necessary. 

Caches are small because the silicon used to build them is quite expensive and, especially on CISC-type CPUs, there might not be enough space on the chip to hold them. There is a trade-off among the three key characteristics of memory: cost, capacity, and access time. 

- Faster access time – greater cost per bit
- Greater capacity – smaller cost per bit
- Greater capacity – slower access time 

The front side bus (FSB) remains one of the biggest bottlenecks on system performance. FSB is the primary interface that connects a microprocessor to other system devices. Typically, the FSB allows the processor to communicate with main memory (RAM), the system chip set, and other peripheral buses. The speed of the FSB in addition to the speed of RAM determines computer speed more than the absolute clock speed of the CPU. But because FSB speeds do not increase as often or as dramatically as CPU speeds, processor manufacturers do not typically call attention to them, instead focusing on the raw speed of the processor. 

Power consumption is another factor in the design of modern computers. Power efficiency can often be traded for performance or cost benefits. The typical measurement in this case is MIPS/W (millions of instructions per watt).

It's Me!

I never hate peoples who are jealous of me.. but I respect their jealousy.. they are the peoples who think that i am better than them..